Jerk

Twitch (Retrieved from http://material science. data/kinematics-analytics/) †¢ Jerk is the pace of progress of increasing speed with time. j = da dt †¢ Jerk is the primary subordinate of quickening, the second subsidiary of speed, and the third subsidiary of uprooting. j = da = d2v = d3r dt dt2 dt3 †¢ The SI unit of twitch is the meter every second cubed. ? ? m/s3 = m/s2 ? ? s †¢ A substitute unit is the g every second. ? ? g = 9. 80665 m/s2 = 9. 80665 m/s3 ? ? s †¢ Why is Jerk a significant quantity?The human body is outfitted with sensors to detect quickening and jolt. Found somewhere inside the ear, incorporated into our skulls, lies a progression of chambers called the maze. Some portion of this maze is committed to our feeling of hearing (the cochlea) and part to our feeling of parity (the vestibular framework). The vestibular framework comes outfitted with sensors that recognize rotational quickening (the crescent channels) and sensors that distinguish straight speeding up (the otoliths).We have two otoliths in every ear †one for identifying increasing speed in the even plane (the utricle) and one for distinguishing quickening in the vertical spot (the saccule). Otoliths are our own worked in accelerometers. The word otolith originates from the Greek (oto, ear) and (lithos, stone). Every one of our four otoliths comprises of a hard bone-like plate joined to a tangle of tactile strands. At the point when the head quickens, the plate movements aside, twisting the tactile filaments. This imparts a sign to the mind saying â€Å"we're quickening. Since gravity likewise pulls on the plates, the sign may likewise mean â€Å"this route is down. † The cerebrum is very acceptable at making sense of the distinction between the two understandings. So great, that we will in general disregard it. (Sight, sound, smell, taste, contact †where's balance in this rundown? ) We overlook it until something changes in an uncommon, sudd en, or outrageous way. I've never been in circle or lived on another planet. Gravity consistently pulls me down similarly. Standing, strolling, sitting, lying †it's all very sedate.Now how about we bounce in a crazy ride (or take part in a comparatively exciting movement like downhill skiing, Formula One dashing, or cycling in Manhattan traffic). Speeding up is coordinated initial one way, at that point another. You may even experience brief times of weightlessness or reversal. These sorts of sensations produce serious mental action, which is the reason we like doing them. They additionally hone us up and keep us centered during perhaps life finishing minutes, which is the reason we advanced this sense in the first place.Your capacity to detect jolt is fundamental to your wellbeing and prosperity. Jolt can be both alarming and energizing. Logarithmic meaning of Jerk: where is speeding up, is speed, is position, t is time. Yank is a vector, and there is no commonly utilized term to portray its scalar greatness (e. g. , â€Å"speed† as the scalar greatness for speed). The SI units of twitch are meters every second cubed (meters every second out of every second of the second, m/s3, or mâ ·s? 3). There is no widespread concurrence on the image for snap, however j is ordinarily used.Newton's documentation for the subordinate of increasing speed can likewise be utilized, particularly when â€Å"surge† or â€Å"lurch† is utilized rather than â€Å"jerk† or â€Å"jolt†. In the event that speeding up can be felt by a body as the power (subsequently pressure) applied by the article realizing the increasing speed on the body, jolt can be felt as the adjustment in this weight. For instance a traveler in a quickening vehicle with zero yank will feel a consistent power from the seat on their body; while positive snap will be felt as expanding power on the body, and negative twitch as diminishing power on the body.

Women Fragmented Body As A Selling Tool Research Paper

Ladies Fragmented Body As A Selling Tool - Research Paper Example Publicizing is a type of advertising correspondence where the components or elements of correspondence is utilized to empower, spur, convince and even control a group of people for causing some activity, that is, causing deals and guaranteeing continuation of the activity. 1 With the expanding rivalry and the development of more current elements in the market it has gotten critical to keep oneself into the glare of the open eye, the subject of the discussion, continually improve and remodel oneself and let individuals think about the equivalent. This requires the need of splendid utilization of publicizing and showcasing abilities. Notice in its essential structure is passing on data about the presence of a specific item in the market or its accessibility, various highlights of the item, the recorded cost and its advantages to pull in individuals to it. It is correspondence to cause deals of the item and even administrations. With the market getting packed with items and specialist organizations it is progressively getting imperative to get the consideration of general society and keep up the equivalent so they don't lose their inhabitance over the market. Not just that, it additionally intends to acquire piece of the overall industry and nearness and in crement it deals and become the fantastic brand. 2 Promotion is a showcasing device and, the fundamental motivation behind publicizing is to catch the eye of individuals who are additionally the potential clients. 3 The push zone of notices is to influence the crowds with the messages in the notices so they are sought after to purchase items or profit the publicized administrations. Thus, the promoters utilize various appealing components in the commercials to get a moment portion of the audience’s consideration which later gets converted into compatibility for the offer of the item or administrations. 3 The strong advancement of innovation has come about TV in each

Evolution of Computers

Evolution of Computers Evolution of Computers Home›Technology Posts›Evolution of Computers Technology PostsIntroductionA computer is described as an electronic device that specializes in the execution of commands and instructions so as to process information. It generally consists of two major parts-hardware and software. A computer processes input segments of information using the input accessories like the    keyboard, cameras, mouse and other devices that can be attached. This device displays output by the help of output devices such as a color monitor or a printer. Generally, the size of a given computer varies considerably from very big to very small. The speed and accuracy of computers also vary. In today’s world, computers have become indispensable. Many people all over the world use computers to validate most of their daily activities. Every generation of computer is basically characterized by a heavy technological advancement that fundamentally changed the manner in which computers run and operate, resulting in increasingly more powerful, cheaper, smaller, reliable and efficient devices  (Gary ,Shelly, Thomas,Cushman,Glenda,Gunter,Randolphand Gunter, 2001).This paper seeks to lay crucial emphasis on the evolution of computers right from the time they were first discovered to the present day technological advancements. Still on the same, it will deliberate on the impacts of the usage of computers in different sectors of the world’s economy. The paper will forward instances of the areas and ways in which computer usage is abundant. The history of computer evolution is usually referred to with constant reference to the various generations of computing devices that were involved. Each stage of computer generation was characterized with  an important development (technological) that greatly changed the modes in which computer operations are handled. This resulted to increasing the probability at which these technical devices are available to the individuals in the wor ld. These particular developments have played a major role in making the computers cheaper for affordability, smaller for portability and convenience, more powerful for better results and reliable for durability reasons.Computerized devices have been around longer than many individuals might imagine. The term computer has rapidly changed meaning over years. However, the electronic computer which is thought of in modern times, evolved throughout the 20th century. Its popularity of being a household item intensified in the 1980s after the arrival of operating systems by major software companies including Microsoft and Apple that mixed text and graphics. This was to replace the text-only systems that existed since the 1970s. By the 1990s, electronic computers incorporated enhanced multimedia and communication applications and developed into an indispensable aspect of life of so many people. Early Computing was an aspect that was narrow and the usage was considerably low as computers we re at their initial stages of development. The original description of the term computer was an individual who made calculations. This description dates back to the 1600s and travels midway through the major development in the 20th century, when the word computer began to describe a machine. A computer is on the same basic aspect as the abacus, which also dates back many centuries ago.Technology made a major leap with cards that were punched, being introduced by Joseph-Marie in the year 1801. It is interesting that such an early use of the computer system involved music. In 1835 Charles Babbage incorporated a steam engine with punched cards to invent what was termed as an analytical engine. Mechanical Information Processing was a concept that was later combined with the existing system to further develop the computer system. In the late 1880s the IBM Company developed out of the discovery of the tabulator which was crafted by Herman Hollerith. This was the very first use of punched cards that represented data rather than the use of punched cards that automated a mechanical function similar to that of a player piano. Through the 1950s the information processing world utilized a combination of punched cards on the key punch and tabulator machines. The first forms of mathematical calculators were discovered in the 1930s. Throughout the World War II era, analog computer machines began to be replaced by the digital ideology of ones and zeroes. Made by Remington Rand in 1951, the first computerized device made for the public was UNIVAC. Later in the following year IBM introduced its official mainframe computer (Rugman, 2005).The initial computer evolution stages were known as first generation computer technologies (1940-1956) also known as vacuum tubes. For circuitry, the early forms of computers used vacuum tubes and for memory they used magnetic drums. They were often enormous and huge taking up entire room spaces. They were relatively expensive to operate and mai ntain because of using a great percentage of electricity. During operation they also generated a lot of heat and this was often an attributed cause of malfunctions. To perform operations  this stage computers relied heavily on machine language which was the lowest level programming language that computers would understand (Rojas Hashagen 2005). This led to them having the ability to solve only one problem at a given time. Input was purely on the grounds of paper tape and punched cards while output was displayed on printouts.The ENIAC and UNIVAC computers are the best examples  of first-generation computers. Second Generation computing devices (1956-1963) made use of transistors. Transistors then replaced vacuum tubes and introduced the second generation of computing devices. The transistor was  superior as compared to the vacuum tube, allowing computing devices to become cheaper, smaller and faster. They were therefore more efficient than their predecessors.Although the transist or also generated a considerable amount of heat that could have otherwise subjected the computer to mechanical risk, it was a great improvement over vacuum tube usage. Second-generation computers also relied on printouts for output and punched cards for input. Second-generation computers evolved from cryptic binary machine language to an assembly, or symbolic language, that allowed programmers to identify illustrations in words. High-level programming languages also developed at this stage, such as ancient versions of FORTRAN and COBOL. They were the first form of computers to store their instructions in their own memories, which shifted to a magnetic core from magnetic drum technology.Third Generation computers (1964-1971), utilized integrated circuits to enhance their performance. The discovery of the integrated circuit became the hallmark of the third generation stage of computer evolution. Transistors were placed and miniaturized on silicon chips, known as semiconductors which r apidly increased the efficiency and speed of computers. Instead of punched printouts and cards, developers interacted with third generation technology through monitors and keyboards and interfaced with operating systems, which allowed the computer to run several different applications all at one time on a central program that closely monitored by the memory. For the first time computers became accessible to a greater audience because they were relatively smaller in size and cheaper than previous generations. The fourth Generation (1971-Present) broadly made use of microprocessors.The microprocessor brought by the fourth generation computers, thousands of integrated and linked circuits built onto a one silicon chip. What filled an entire room in the first generation could now ably fit in the palm of a hand. This meant that smaller space would be occupied by these new devices. As these computers (smaller in size) became more powerful and efficient, they later on had the ability to for m networks, in which could be linked together. This led to the development of the worldwide Internet in the long run. Fourth generation computers also propelled the development of handheld devices, the mouse and GUIs. The fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) has invested more on artificial intelligence. Fifth generation computers were developed on artificial intelligence and   are still under development, even though there are some programs, such as electronic   voice recognition that are currently being used presently. The use of superconductors and parallel processing is facilitating the making of artificial intelligence into a reality. Nanotechnology, molecular and quantum computation will drastically change the phase of computers in future. The objective of the fifth-generation computing devices is to develop computerized devices that are compatible to natural signals and have the potential of self-organization.(Godse and Godse, 2004).Computers have been applied in many differe nt sectors to facilitate the efficiency of information processes. For a long time now, scientists and developers have forwarded theories and ideologies that have been adopted   to   develop many differentiated tasks that can be performed by the computers. Since time in memorial, devices have been created to facilitate communication. In the second generation of computers, there was the need to diversify and attach extra features to the computer to enable it do more tasks. One of the tasks was to facilitate the transfer of information. Communication is by far the most basic requirement for human survival. Human beings need to communicate to develop and ease their life styles. Computers have in the long run been used to aid in communication in various ways and forms in the society today. Through the sending of e-mails from one computer to the other, both the recipient and the sender are able to exchange information (Shelly, Cushman, Gunter Gunter, 2003). The exchange may be beneficial to different descriptions of persons in the community in different ways.In the education sector, students and scholars are enabled to acquire information in a more efficient and quicker manner. Through the access of internet, people from all over the world are able to access information on the developments in the education sector freely. Students can also apply for admission to schools that have a reputation of worldwide quality standards. Computers have been used to communicate messages throughout the world. Computers have been used to write and transmit newsletters and memos within and also without a given organization. There are other several uses applications of computers which are dependent on the sector they are to be employed. Computers can be used in word processing and related tasks (Hasselbring Glaser, 2001). A word processing program automatically corrects grammar and spelling mistakes and errors. If what is contained in a document is repetitive, there is no need to typ e it each time. The user can use some features in the computer known as ‘copy and paste’ features. The documents can be printed out into several copies. It makes it easier to read and analyze a word-processed document as compared to a handwritten one. The user can add images and templates to the document depending on the complexity and skill of the user.The internet creates a common ground of reference and computer networking all over the world. The internet is a network of so many computers in the world. One is in a position to browse through more information and studies than what is available in a physical library. This is because computers are able to store huge amounts of processed information. The user can also have very convenient and fast access to up to date information (Hwang 1999). Through E-Mail services, communication with a person sitting hundreds of miles away in minutes is made possible. There is chat software that enables users to chat with each other on real-tim e basis. Other developments in the computer world such as video conferencing tools are increasingly becoming available to the common man. Audio composition or digital video are technological advancements in the field of computers that have diversified the use of computers. Video or audio editing and composition have become much easier by the use of computers. In the modern world, it no longer costs hundreds of dollars of technical equipment to make a film or compose music. Graphics engineers use computers to create full-length or short films and also to create models that are of three-dimensions. Anybody who owns a computer is in a capacity of entering the field of production especially through media. Special effects in action movies and science fiction are developed using computers.Mathematical calculations can now be done through computers. Thanks to calculators (computers solely created for calculations); both arithmetic and mathematical computing has been eased. They exhibit cal culation speeds of up to a million calculations per second. As a result, we can perform some of the biggest mathematical calculations through their help. Throughout the evolution of computers, mathematical functions have been systematically integrated into computers enabling them to perform some of the most tedious mathematical functions. Computers have also developed popular demand in usage in the business world. Currently, supermarkets and shops are using software, which facilitates the calculation of the bills. This application aids in stock accountability and the determination of stock re-order levels. Similarly, taxes can be paid and calculated online. Due to the development of complex accounting computer programs, various forms of accounting are done through computers.Entrepreneurs can also predict the future trends of business and trade cycles through the use of artificial intelligence software. In larger organizations, integrated stock keeping software is used to ensure comp etitiveness in the stock markets. This way, the user (business people) can trade online. In the manufacturing sector, there are comprehensively automated factories that are set to run on software. Defense and security arms of the government have been greatly improved by the incorporation of computers into their systems. Computer evolution has resulted to software embedded solutions in almost all forms of weapons. In such cases, software is used for targeting in ballistic bombs missiles and controlling the flight. Software has been modified and used in the control of access to atomic bombs. These developments have facilitated the war against terrorism and the sub sequential control of ammunition and harmful weaponry.Security is a basic requirement for human life sustenance and is listed in the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In hospitals, the health personnel are ably connected to ensure that they are in the front line in acquisition of new knowledge on the developments and modificati ons to their current practices.   Computers have also been used to update worksheets in various institutions. Through the automated element of the computers, they are able to continuously keep records and data at speed with the current times. Also through the access of internet these computers are by far the most accurate devices in keeping the data as per requirement. This has a number of advantages to the organization including the obvious ones of accuracy and high speed task handling. Computers also cut on costs such as those to be spent on updating data (Alt 2000).By use of computers, we can store and transfer data more safely and easily. The transfer is faster and more convenient in terms of developing channels of interaction through the internet. For instance since the fourth generation of computers, there has been a number social websites that people have used to meet individuals from all over the world and who are subscribed to them. It is without doubt that the internet has made the world a global village. The connection of a computer to the internet is by far the most considerate investment the user can make. People from all walks of life meet to share though online forums and workshops. The participators get to know what initiatives other countries and nations are putting in place to develop.In bigger organizations computers have been used to facilitate data presentation either on the company’s progress or otherwise (Freed Ishida 2000). For example during corporate meetings, the top management puts thorough emphasis on the need to be clear and comprehensive in the presentation of research results. Computers have evolved to being in handy in developing the skills of the employees in data presentation. Computers are used to produce an acceptable form of presentation that I not only clear but also attractive and appealing. Globalization is an aspect that all economies all over the world are striving to achieve. Globalization is a development aspect t hat can be achieved through intensifying the application of computers in networking attempts.In conclusion, the evolution of computers has come a long way from the earliest big systems to the modern atom like laptops. Information processing has been improved so much as more advanced systems evolved. New uses of computers have been discovered as more advanced systems develop. Computers are likely to continue impacting on all aspects of humanity as we move forward. Human beings in the coming years will make use of computers to perform nearly all activities that concern their life.

Hist 405 Final Exam Latest Devry - 1210 Words

HIST 405 FINAL EXAM LATEST DEVRY To purchase this visit following link: http://www.activitymode.com/product/hist-405-final-exam-latest-devry/ Contact us at: SUPPORT@ACTIVITYMODE.COM HIST 405 FINAL EXAM LATEST DEVRY HIST 405 Final Exam Latest DeVry Page 1 Question 1.1. (TCO 4) The Spanish who settled in Florida and New Mexico were primarily (Points : 2) conquistadors. merchants. missionaries. plantation owners. Type: MC Question 2.2. (TCO 1) The Jamestown colony was established by (Points : 2) a joint-stock company. religious dissenters. English missionaries. an aristocratic explorer. Type: MC Question 3.3. (TCO 4) Why did English immigration to the colonies drop dramatically after 1660? (Points : 2) The English were†¦show more content†¦Type: MC Question 16.16. (TCO 8) Lee’s smaller army defeated McClellan’s larger force and kept Union troops out of Richmond because (Points : 2) Lee was lucky. McClellan surrendered. Lee found McClellan’s battle plans. McClellan was too cautious. Type: MC Question 17.17. (TCO 8) Why did President Lincoln want Grant commanding the Union army after the Battle of Gettysburg? (Points : 2) He wanted to give Grant a chance to prove himself. He knew victory required the destruction of the Confederate Army and its source of supplies. He had heard that Grant had recruited more Union troops. He thought the South would surrender. Type: MC Question 18.18. (TCO 10) After the Civil War, a new immigrant was most likely to be from (Points : 2) England. Germany. Ireland. Italy. Type: MC Question 19.19. (TCO 10) Progressivism and populism largely differed in (Points : 2) their goals. their ideology. that progressives built political coalitions that transcended party lines. their organization. Type: MC Question 20.20. (TCO 7) The invasion of Belgium turned American opinion against Germany because (Points : 2) many Americans were immigrants from Belgium. Americans depended on products imported from Belgium. Belgium was an important U.S. ally. Belgium was a neutral nation. Type: MC Question 21.21. (TCO 7) During World War I, which of these did the Germans use against British ships? (Points : 2) Radar Convoys Airplanes Submarines Type:Show MoreRelatedDevry Hist 405 Final Exam - Latest1189 Words   |  5 PagesDeVry HIST 405 Final Exam - Latest IF You Want To Purchase A+ Work Then Click The Link Below , Instant Download http://www.hwspeed.com/DeVry-HIST-405-Final-Exam-Latest-873483.htm?categoryId=-1 If You Face Any Problem E- Mail Us At JOHNMATE1122@Gmail.Com Page 1 Question 1.1. (TCO 4) The Spanish who settled in Florida and New Mexico were primarily (Points : 2) conquistadors. merchants. missionaries. plantation owners. Type: MC Question

Iran s Support For International Terrorism - 3050 Words

Introduction The 1979 Revolution in Iran ended a truly symbiotic relationship between the United States and the Shah, thus creating the beginning of a longwinded road of economic sanctions imposed upon Iran. â€Å"As a result of Iran s support for international terrorism and its aggressive actions against nonbelligerent shipping in the Persian Gulf, President Ronald Reagan, on October 29, 1987, issued Executive Order 12613 imposing a new import embargo on Iranian-origin goods and services† , and for when rogue Iranians took American citizens hostage at the embassy, releasing them months later, the relationship began to become strained. In following the history of the economic sanctions, I’ll begin with an outline of the United States’ most†¦show more content†¦citizens from entering into jobs requiring the financing or supervision â€Å"of the development of petroleum resources located in Iran or in an area over which Iran claims jurisdiction† 8) the May 1995 ban on exportation of goods to Iran from the US of anything types of goods, technology, or even trade services such as financing by United States banks 9) the August 1996 signing of the Iran and Libya Sanctions and finally 10) the last executive order of August 1997 in which we confirmed that all trade and investment activities with Iran by banks, companies, or any persons are formally prohibited. Research Design This paper will be defining and critiquing the problem at hand through use of a case study and analysis of the literature at hand to help prove the theory that sanctions have been ineffective throughout our historical use of them. It will identify the problem as being one of nuclear deterrence to solve for Iran’s threatening stance on nuclear power. It will then go on to argue that the United States and all involved allies should employ soft power peace talks to negotiate trade and settle debate on Iran’s past of nuclear

About Me Free Essays

My culture, Hinduism, and race, Indian, have been the most influential characteristics in my life. These two characteristics combined also influence my other characteristics such as my age and sex. In America, my age restricts me from doing many things; but coming from a Hindu background brings me many more responsibilities along with my age. We will write a custom essay sample on About Me or any similar topic only for you Order Now My sex prohibits me from achieving many life goals that other people would have no problem achieving. My ethnicity and culture have had a very big impact on my social life. Learning that I was different from others was an experience that I will remember for the rest of my life. I learned about one of my dominant characteristics in the second grade. One day in class, Steven Vogel cut out little red dots for me because I did not already have one on my forehead. He also howled like an American Indian and did a rain dance for me. That day, I realized that I was different and I would have to live with it for the rest of my life. I lived in a southern town of Florida near the border of Alabama where many people were not open to other races; so I would have to get used to the taunting. At that time, I realized that I am Indian. Growing up, everyone wants to be in the in-group. Being an Indian Hindu girl, I was told not to go out. I was not allowed to go to football games, school dances, or any other after-school functions. No matter how much we want to be in the popular group in high school, most Indian children belong in the group between the in-group and the nerds. Hindu parents usually do not let their children go out because they believe their children will be corrupted. For example, I really wanted to go to my senior prom, but I was not allowed to. I was not even allowed to get a job like a normal teenager. This summer I asked my parents if I could so that I could save up for college. My father did not let me get a job because I had to stay home to learn how to cook. Females have very little advantages in my culture. We are not allowed to be too educated. If a woman is too educated, she is basically considered to be no good, modern, too independent and an instigator of family problems after marriage. The belief that girls should not be allowed as much freedom and independence as men hinders other women, from achieving many of our life goals and me. With age I have many responsibilities and restrictions. Most of my restrictions come from living in America. I am not yet allowed to vote. I am not given many job opportunities: I went to the mall a week ago to find a job but most of the stores require their employees to be eighteen. Another restriction that my ethnicity, along with age and sex, brings is marriage. A good Indian girl is engaged by the age of twenty-one or twenty-two. I am only seventeen years old, but I am expected to know how to cook and clean because this is the prime age when the adult matchmakers observe me. I expect my life in the future to include being a housewife. I approve of the concept of housewives, but I would like to be more educated. The times have slowly been changing. I am a first generation Indian-American and I have more privileges than my parents did. Because of the changing times, I may be able to fulfill my dreams of becoming a doctor. The typical Indian, Hindu family instills the importance of respect and morals into their children. I have learned to appreciate all of the values that my parents have taught me while growing up. This is a big privilege because when I look out in the world, I see families who teach their children to hate or do not teach their children the significance of respect. I was taught also to especially respect my teachers. Many people, however, do not have that same respect. I am proud that I have had the chance to learn and grow up with the values and principles that are taught by Hinduism. How to cite About Me, Essay examples

The role of inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Colorectal Cancer

Question: Describe about The role of inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Colorectal Cancer? Answer: The pathogenesis of Colorectal Cancer from the initial cellular mutation to its IIA stage: The development of cancer in the rectum or in colon which are parts of large intestine is known as colorectal cancer. Its main cause is due to the abrupt growth of cells that has ability to spread all over the body. The colorectal cancer is can be also called as rectal cancer, bowel cancer and colon cancer. TNM staging of colorectal cancer can be used to diagnose Brians cancer (McConnell and Yang, 2009). The TNM stands for: the size of the preliminary tumors (T), whether there are cancer cells in lymph nodes (N) and whether the cancer cell has spread out all over the body (M). There are four stages of tumors in colorectal cancer: T1 the inner layer of the bowel has tumor. T2 the tumor has spread to the muscle layer of the bowel wall. T3 the tumor has spread to the outer lining of the bowel wall. T4 the tumor has spread from the outer lining of the bowel wall to other parts of bowel as well as its nearby organs. Diagnosis from Brians Cancer from initial stage: Stage 0 or carcinoma in situ (CIS) The inner bowel lining has the cancer cells. In this stage there is very little risk of cancer to spread as the cancer cells are within the lining. Stage 1 In this stage the cancer cells have spread from the inner lining to the muscle wall of the bowel but it is restricted up to there. Stage 2a In this stage the cancer cells have spread out to the outer covering of the bowel wall. However, there absence of cancer cells in the lymph nodes (Wood, et al., 2010). The modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for colorectal cancer: Modifiable risk factors A large group of scientist believes that the reasons for colorectal cancer are abnormal dietary and harsh lifestyle. Physical inactiveness and excessive body weight are increasing the risk factors. In case of Brian overconsumption of energy, high alcohol consumption, processed meat and smoking with low diet in addition to micronutrients such as folate and methionine may have likely contributed to colon cancer. Non-modifiable risk factors The non-modifiable risk factors of colorectal cancer are older age, genetic disorder, diabetes, obesity, mutation and family history (Kato, et al., 2013). These risk factors are briefly discussed below for Brians case: Lifestyle Many lifestyle factors causes the bowel cancer. It is connected with weight; diet and lack of physical exercise are the strongest risk factors for the colorectal cancer. Diets High consumption of red meats like beef, lamb, liver or pork and processed meat increases the risk of cancer. Cooking meats in very high temperature like frying and broiling and grilling gives out chemicals which may cause cancer. Smoking The cases of colorectal cancer is more in smokers than in non-smokers. Lungs cancer is mainly by smoking but it is also connected to colorectal cancer. Age As the age of Brian is 50, the age factor may also cause the cancer. Personal history If Brian has the history of adenomatous polyps, this increases the chances of colorectal cancer as even though it was previously cured it may occur in some other organ of the body. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) which involves ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease, in this cases colon get inflamed for a long period and then often develop Dysplasia. This condition generally leads to colon cancer. Family history The diagnosis of cancer within first degree of relative such as parents, children and siblings increases the risk of cancer. This is due to the fact that cancer runs in the family from inherited genes (Charkhpour et al., 2010). The action and mechanism of metronidazole and morphine in relation to colorectal cancer administration: Metronidazole is banned in European countries and in the United States of America due to its carcinogenic properties. If a combination a metronidazole and 5-fluorouacil (5-FU) is given to Brian for the treatment of bowel cancer, after four weeks it could be seen that prohibitive toxicity have occurred. This is due to the fact that 5-FU toxicity was increased by the addition of metronidazole as it decreases the therapeutic index of 5-FU in the treatment by impairing its clearance and results to toxicity without providing therapeutic efficiency (Hassanzadeh et al., 2010). Morphine is the best drug to get relief from pain in cancer patients. In addition to its role in pain treatment, it is also vital for regulation of neoplastic tissue. In case of Brain, if morphine is administered to him it can cause secondary complications. As the role of morphine in growth-inhibiting and growth-promoting effects on cancer tumors have been seen. Therefore, morphine will create an adverse effect on Brians body (Charkhpour et al., 2010). The nursing responsibilities in administering morphine: The nursing responsibilities while administering morphine to Brain is given below: Indication Severe pain in the abdominal area, moderate to severe chronic pain, pulmonary edema and myocardial infarction pain. Action The nurse must immediate contact the doctor and on his advice morphine should be administered. On administering morphine, it will bind to opiate receptors of the central nervous system (CNS) and response to pain stimuli will shift and a generalized central nervous system will be produced. Side Effects The side effects of morphine should be evaluated by the nurse like sedation, confusion, hallucinations, vomiting and nausea, headache, confusion, bradycardia, blurry vision, constipation, unusual dreams and etc. Symptoms of over dosage The symptoms of over dosage are like respiratory depression, pinpoint pupils, hypotension, deepening coma, circulatory failure and etc. Management of dosage The antidote of morphine should always be ready by the nurse. The antidote of morphine is Naloxone (Narcan). The administration of morphine should be gradually stopped to prevent the symptoms after prolong usage. Fluid intake should be given to Brain to manage constipation (Shaffer and Aymong, 2014). References: Charkhpour, M., Nayebi, A., Doustar, Y. and Hassanzadeh, K. (2010). 8-OH-DPAT Prevents Morphine-Induced Apoptosis in Rat Dorsal Raphe Nucleus. Anesthesia Analgesia, 111(5), pp.1316-1321. Hassanzadeh, K., Habibi-asl, B., Farajnia, S. and Roshangar, L. (2010). Minocycline Prevents Morphine-Induced Apoptosis in Rat Cerebral Cortex and Lumbar Spinal Cord: A Possible Mechanism for Attenuating Morphine Tolerance. Neurotox Res, 19(4), pp.649-659. Kato, I., Startup, J. and Ram, J. (2013). Fecal Biomarkers for Research on Dietary and Lifestyle Risk Factors in Colorectal Cancer Etiology. Curr Colorectal Cancer Rep, 10(1), pp.114-131. McConnell, B. and Yang, V. (2009). The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer. Curr colorectal cancer rep, 5(2), pp.69-74. Shaffer, C. and Aymong, L. (2014). Administering vaccines. Nursing, 44(10), pp.46-50. Wood, P., Yang, X. and Hrushesky, W. (2010). The Role of Circadian Rhythm in the Pathogenesis of Colorectal Cancer. Curr Colorectal Cancer Rep, 6(2), pp.74-82.

Personal Productivity Self

Animal Farm vs. Marxism essays

Animal Farm vs. Marxism essays In George Orwell's Animal Farm, the animals and events can be compared to similar people and events during the Russian Revolution of 1917. These similarities stand out due to the symbolism found in the book and the reality of the happenings of the Russian Revolution. Old Major was a prized-boar that belonged to Farmer Jones. The fact that Old Major is himself a boar was to signify that radical change and revolution are, themselves, boring in the eyes of the lower class (represented by the other barnyard animals), who are more prone to worrying about work and survival in their everyday life. Old Major gave many speeches to the farm animals about hope and the future. He is the main animal who got the rebellion started even though he died before it actually began. Old Major's role compares to Lenin and Marx whose ideas were to lead to the communist revolution. "Animal Farm is a criticism of Karl Marx, as well as a novel perpetuating his convictions of democratic Socialism." (Zwerdling, 20). Lenin became leader and teacher of the working class in Russia, and their determination to struggle against capitalism. Like Old Major, Lenin and Marx wrote essays and gave speeches to the working class poor. The working class in Russia, as compared wit h the barnyard animals in Animal Farm, was a laboring class of people that received low wages for their work. "Like the animals in the farm yard, the people is Russia thought there would be no oppression in a new society because the working class people (or animals) would own all the riches and hold all the power." (Golubeva and Gellerstein 168). Another character represented in the book is Farmer Jones. He represents the symbol of the Czar Nicholas in Russia who treated his people like Farmer Jones treated his animals. The animal rebellion on the farm was started because Farmer Jones was a drunk who never took care of the animals and who came home one night, left the gate open and the...

Strategic Management and Transport Policy Critical Review Assignment

Strategic Management and Transport Policy Critical Review - Assignment Example The critical review aims at analysing sustainable transport and the modernisation of urban transport in cities. The paper makes use of research conducted by Thynell, Mohan, and Tiwari that investigates and provides results and conclusions on the transport sustainability and modernisation in Delhi and Stockholm. The paper will critically review this study as a basis to get conclusive evidence on areas that the study was effective and the not so effective areas that the researchers ought to have made improvements. The topic comes from the journal, Cities, Volume 27 published in 2010 titled, â€Å"Sustainable transport and the modernization of urban transport in Delhi and Stockholm†. The essay will make a summary of the main areas of the article with specific emphasis on the discussion, methods, results, and conclusions, provide a summary of three articles in the field inclusive of the article under review on the field, and provide value judgments on the article. The essay will n ot be in a position to provide a comprehensive view of the whole transport literature because of the limited time and length of the paper. The essays course is the provision of a view on the effective strategies that were applied or ought to have been applied in the completion of the transport article to ensure more success and provide a view of the literature on transport. The need for an efficient transport system has never been greater in cities with the growth of the economy and the modernisation of lifestyles. The effect was pressure for cities to invest in modern technology and ensure its sustainability as a measure of managing traffic and augment competitiveness in national and international context. The purpose of the article was to find politicians perceptions and examine the transport plans in Delhi and Stockholm in a view of finding the driving forces for infrastructure plans and transport policy.

Prevention of diseases Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Prevention of diseases - Assignment Example Children may suffer from various diseases such as asthma and mold at a very tender age due to pollution (Miller, 1976: p.23). Environmental pollution may take various forms such as water or air bore diseases depending on the mode of waste disposal. Poor disposal of highly toxic liquid materials pollutes the environment. This is common to industries that discharge toxic chemicals into water bodies or streams. This will affect individuals who use this water for domestic purposes like cooking or drinking. Mercury consumption may lead to cancer which is an incurable disease that has claimed the lives of many people. New methods should be employed to help in proper disposal of waste materials (Pellow, 2006: p.103-124). Moving vehicles also pollute the environment. The gases emitted from locomotives such as carbon monoxide is very dangerous and poisonous gas to human health. Such gases may lead to death within a short period of time if inhaled. This is so because if the gas is inhaled, it causes complications to the breathing system of human beings and can cause death instantly. Inventing new sources of energy will help to curb this menace or using (Vrijheid, 2000: p.101). However, Scientists have tried modifying and inventing new sources of fuel that are used in the industries and locomotives. The use of electricity has replaced coal that was used earlier in running heavy machinery in most factories. Treating of waste materials from industries has also helped a lot in curbing the menace of water pollution.

Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol

Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Introduction Government policies and assistance for people who misuse alcohol raise controversial issues for legislators, policymakers and practitioners alike. Goodman (2007) highlights that government policy adopts both a ‘carrot and ‘stick approach. While individuals who misuse substances are encouraged to seek treatment, there is also the threat that for those who choose not to engage in programmes, they run the risk of being targeted if they continue in their addiction. Thus those whose alcohol addiction has caused them to become involved in criminal/illegal activities and who refuse to engage with alcohol interventions face agencies using enforcement and prosecution if they continue with their behaviours. Harm caused by alcohol is Scotlands biggest health challenge. Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action was published to address Scotlands  £2.25 billion alcohol misuse problem. The governments focus is on reducing costs, recovery and making sure that people who need help are identified sooner and directed towards the right services (Scottish Government, 2009). In line with this, there have been significant changes in welfare policies for people who misuse alcohol. There is no clear of the number of people with drug and alcohol problems receiving social work interventions. Research is usually based on specialised practice teams, for example, teams working with children and families. Research suggests that approximately 25 per cent of children on child protection registers involve parental alcohol and or drug use. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of drugs (ACMD) 2003) while Hayden (2004) points out that higher estimates have been found among children and families services more broadly. Further research highlights that drug and alcohol misuse is prevalent with the many groups of people social workers often work with, for example, 44 per cent of people with mental ill health use substances in harmful or hazardous ways (Weaver et al, 2003) and among young people aged 14-15, research has shown that drinking alcohol is a regular occurrence (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). Gender is also an important area in the field of substance misuse with rese arch showing that it is often thought for it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man (Sandmaier, 1992). It would appear that the experience of alcohol abuse may be different for a man and a woman. My interest in addictions developed whilst on placement with a voluntary organisation working with young people involved with offending and/or anti social behaviour. The placement demonstrated the increase in the extent to which drug and alcohol use influences the involvement of young people in offending (Rutter et al, 1998). An opportunity whilst on a mental health placement to work with a woman experiencing severe emotional, behavioural and financial difficulties who was alcohol dependent alerted me to the profound effects of addiction, the effect of proposed policy changes and to some of the difficulties experienced whilst working with this client group. By 2009, the harm caused by alcohol and the cost to UK society had become a topical debate. Current downturns in the UK economic climate coupled with large number of economically inactive individuals and an increase in worklessness created much cause for concern. It was decided to focus this study on alcohol dependent service users in light of the new legislation in the UK which aimed to support individuals with health difficulties in getting back to work. Aims of the Research This research aim is to explore the experiences and perceptions of front line workers regarding the implication of the new Employment and Support Allowance for people who misuse alcohol and the implications this has for social work practice and will broadly cover issues such as: What difference, if any, has the introduction of the new Employment and Support Allowance made to work carried out with alcohol dependent service users? Should the implementation of this Allowance be subject to specific conditions? What is the experiences of working with alcohol dependent service users? Outline of the dissertation A review of the relevant literature is presented in chapter two in order to set the study in its legal, political and practice context. The approach and methods used to collect the data will be explored in chapter three. Chapter four presents and discusses the findings and chapter five presents the final analysis, draws some conclusions and makes some suggestions for future practice and research. All names including the name of the organisation in which the research is based have been changed in accordance with confidentiality agreements. Chapter 1 Literature Review INTRODUCTION This literature review is divided into four sections. Section one addresses, understandings of alcohol abuse. Political responses to alcohol abuse is the focus of section two. Section three explores the reasons for change and section four discusses practice issues, challenges and dilemmas. The terms alcohol addiction, alcoholism, and alcohol dependence have the same meaning. No one term is more serious than the other. Different terms have evolved over the years to overcome the negative stigma of addiction. Some people are not addicted to drugs or alcohol, but abuse them. The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) uses specific criteria over a 12 month period to differentiate between dependence and abuse. If an individual fulfils the criteria for substance dependency then a diagnosis of substance abuse does not apply (Petersen McBride, 2002). For the purpose of this research, the term alcohol abuse will be used to describe individuals who abuse alcohol as well as those who are categorised as alcohol dependent. SECTION 1 Understandings of alcohol abuse The use of alcohol is long standing within Western culture. As the research has a focus on alcohol abuse, consideration must be given to the reasons why such a growth in excessive drinking emerged. The social changes stemming from the industrial revolution are therefore significant. Previous to these, ideas centred on the view that human beings were thought to be rational and exercised free will in relation to self enjoyment. Individuals were seen to exercise choice; â€Å"Drunkenness was a choice, albeit a sinful one, which some individuals made.† (Levine, 1978, p146) The movement of people from rural to urban areas because of the need for organised labour together with the growth in population meant that there were significantly high concentrations of people. Social problems emerged on an exceptional scale with excessive alcohol consumption and related safety at work issues causing great public concern. Problems relating to alcohol abuse thus became more socially significant. Many theories exist in relation to understanding the causes of alcohol abuse. Early explanations to problems with substance misuse focused on moral issues and the idea that alcohol consumption and ungodliness were linked. Individuals who had problems with drink were viewed as being ‘weak willed or ‘sinful with ‘treatment focusing on punishment or religious conversion (Petersen McBride, 2002, p34*). During the nineteenth century, scientific explanations began to emerge in relation to understanding the spread of excessive drinking behaviour in society; this was the first time that the idea of alcoholism as a disease was considered (Collins, 1990). Applying such a medical analysis allowed for a new awareness, understanding and even sympathetic attitude towards alcohol consumption and its related problems. Pressure on the State to ensure that alcoholism was recognised as a disease which required specific medical attention was now evident. Petersen McBride (2002) highlight that substance use is different from dependence or addiction. When a person tries a substance once or for the first few times, it is seen as ‘experimental. Substance misuse can also be ‘recreational meaning a person may misuse a substance, for example, alcohol, occasionally or on a social basis. The individual is seen as ‘dependent if they have developed a dependent pattern on a substance and misuse it continually. Critics argue that the disease approach focuses the attention only on the dependent problem drinker, the drinker who is experiencing severe physical and social consequences. Problems can occur at any of these stages with different interventions available, for example, the ‘disease model supports the argument for total abstinence and is broadly supported by Alcoholics Anonymous. However this model will not work for everyone. Alternatively, models which focus on harm reduction through controlled drinking, for example , the ‘wheel of change model, are also accepted within drug and alcohol services (Goodman, 2007). Difficulties arise when categorising individuals and in relation to the language used; for example what constitutes recreational use? What is the difference between dependence and addiction? The language used within alcohol literature varies greatly. It is possible for someone to be in all three stages at once; for example someone who is dependent on alcohol may recreationally misuse cannabis. There appears to be a move away from socially constructed terms such as addiction, with research highlighting that terms such as ‘addict or ‘alcoholic carry with them a negative connation and are powerful labels. Goodman (2007) points out that it is better to call a person drug dependent, where the dependency is the compulsion to keep taking drugs. There is no one clear definition of alcohol abuse as a disease. Kessel Walton (1989) highlight that ‘alcoholism is a difficult subject to study and alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. Defining what constitutes an ‘alcoholic and what constitutes a ‘non-alcoholic is difficult. Collins (1990) highlights that; â€Å"It is now accepted that problem drinking exists on a continuum, with normal or non-problem drinking at one end and severe dependence at the other† (Collins, 1990, p49*) Developments in research into dependency have led to risk factors such as stress, social environment, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender being identified. For example, studies have shown that children born from alcohol dependent parents who are adopted into families with no dependency issues are at greater risk of becoming alcohol dependent than the rest of the population. This would suggest that there is some genetic predisposition to alcohol dependence. Children born and raised by alcohol dependent parents have an even greater rate of becoming alcohol dependent, although here learnt behaviour may also be a factor (ref). Psychological theories such as Social Learning Theory relate behaviour to processes that take place within the individuals mind rather than the physical structure of the brain. Behaviour is believed to be conditioned by the expectations of the individual in carrying out a particular action, for example, immediate short term effects of alcohol can create feelings of enjoyment or eliminate unpleasant withdrawals. In the long term the advantages of stopping may be less rewarding than the short term gratification of prolonged misuse. Certain studies question the idea of rewarded behaviour and that addiction is a consequence. Chein (1964) found that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users, suggesting that drugs are not inherently rewarding as Social Learning Theory purports. Furthermore, it was found that a percentage of people who developed dependencies became dependent anyway despite having found the initial drug experience unpleasant. Regardless of these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and highlights once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model. Social Learning theory is helpful in explaining the differences in social attitudes to alcohol abuse in women. Sandmaier (1992) surveyed attitudes towards alcohol abuse among four hundred women and men of varying socioeconomic classes, ethnicity and age in the United States and found that the majority thought it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man. Labelling someone as an ‘alcoholic can be stigmatising and affect an individuals self-efficacy and self-esteem (Goodman, 2007). Attitudes towards drinking are not homogeneous, however the stigma attached to female alcohol abuse significantly shapes the experience, rendering it different from the experience of a man. Alcohol abuse for women threatens societys formed image about women being good mothers or good wives. Problem drinking often goes undetected amongst women due to a fear of condemnation by society. Women experiencing alcohol problems can be viewed as ‘repulsive and disgraceful. Such cultural judgments can therefore adversely affect women seeking help (Sandmaier, 1992, p8). Theories of personality are located somewhere between the biological and psychological with suggestions that certain types of people will experience problems with alcohol dependency. The term ‘addictive personality is sometimes used but critics have questioned this, concluding that there is no one type of personality more likely to abuse substances or develop substance dependency (Nathan, 1988). What appears to be more accurate is that specific personality traits have been linked to substance misuse, for example, sensation seeking has been identified as a personality trait that may be common in those who choose to abuse substances (Zuckerman, 1979). Two main schools of thought appear to be evident in relation to understanding alcohol abuse; the biological standpoint and a more psychosocial belief structure. It is important to understand that theories provide useful contributions to understanding substance dependence but that no integrated theory exists. â€Å"As there is no one substance use experience and no one encompassing theory, there can be no one specific response.† (Petersen McBride, 2002, p36) What looks apparent is that society, for many years, has had an ambivalent attitude towards alcohol consumption. Confusion of attitudes inevitably result from shifts among policy makers in line with changes in dominant viewpoints. Predominant medical understandings of alcohol abuse which consider ‘alcoholism as a disease justify state intervention such as help through health care to address the damage caused to the body. Whatever the reasons behind substance abuse and dependency, research has shown there to be a huge cost, both financially and to human life. SECTION 2 Political responses to alcohol abuse In order to explore the States approach to tackling alcohol abuse, ideas around welfare are significant. As a result of the development of ‘alcoholism being recognised as a disease which requires treatment, distinguishable welfare needs have been identified. In reviewing ideas around welfare, the ‘welfare state in the UK differed from previous schemes of poverty relief due to its relatively universal coverage. The Social Insurance and Allied Services Report (1942) (the Beveridge Report) provided the proposals which allowed for the creation of the welfare state. The idea was to provide universal benefits to all and to address issues such as unemployment, poverty and disease. Critics argued that the creation of a ‘welfare state under Beveridges original proposal was excessively expensive, could not be financially maintained after the post war boom period and would create an unwillingness to work. Since 1979, reforms have been evident across all government sectors with more of an emphasis being placed on the responsibility of the individual. The Social Security Act (1986) brought about major structural changes to the social security system. In relation to benefits, means testing and compulsory conditions to specific benefits were established. For example, invalidity benefit for those who were unable to work due to ill health, which included alcohol dependent service users, was changed to incapacity benefit requiring all but the severely disabled, below pension age, to become job seekers. This brought about a new culture towards welfare which the ‘New Labour government elected in the 1997 election were quick to embrace. Alcock et al (2008) highlight that in analysing current political attitudes, an account of social policy now is an account of the shape it has been given by the New Labour Government in power. The Government believes that paid work has many rewards, for example, it increases independence, health and well being. The government wants to provide the opportunity for as many people as possible to access employment and share such rewards. Employment policies occupy a central but controversial place in debates about the future of welfare. Welfare-to work programmes for those who are able to work have been introduced in an attempt to move away from the ‘old passive benefit system (Alcock et al, 2008, p342). Developments have seen groups that had previously not been expected to find paid work, for example, people with disabilities, now being include d in this approach. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) which applies to England, Wales and Scotland sets out the framework necessary for the future abolition of Income Support, and the movement of claimants of that benefit to Jobseekers Allowance with differing degrees of conditionality, or to Employment and Support Allowance. The Act provides for those who have problems with alcohol to be directed to make, and comply with, a rehabilitation plan. Concern about the negative consequences of alcohol abuse has reached a significantly high point on the current political agenda. At a national level the problems associated with alcohol abuse is recognised as a priority by the Government. Local governments have developed their own frameworks for addressing alcohol related harm, for example, ‘Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action (Scottish Government, 2009). The role alcohol plays in the UKs economy can be both positive and negative. There are wide-reaching economic benefits derived from alcohol and alcohol consumption such as the provision of employment and tax revenues. The total value of the UK drinks market exceeds  £30 billion. The justification for alcohol excise duties ensures that the consumer directly contributes to any costs that alcohol consumption imposes on society as alcoholic drink is subject to both excise and VAT. Revenue for the Exchequer is substantial and has been increasing for the last 30 years. The alcoholic drinks industry reports to generate approximately one million jobs across the whole supply chain. The British Beer and Pub Association reports that there are over one million people employed in hotels, restaurants, pubs and clubs (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2008). It is evident that alcohol plays an important role in the success of certain parts of industry in UK society. In relation to the harm caused by alcohol in Scotland, there were over 40,000 hospital admissions in 2007-8 due to alcohol related illness and injury and deaths related to alcohol have more than doubled in the last 15 years. Rates of liver cirrhosis in Scotland are growing faster than anywhere else in the world and life expectancy in some parts of Scotland has fallen significantly short of life expectancy elsewhere. Research suggests that alcohol plays a significant part in these inequalities (Scottish Government, 2009). Research has shown that drinking alcohol in Scotland is a common occurrence for the majority of young people between the ages of 12 and 15 and that the problem with underage drinking is rising (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). If people are drinking at a younger age they are at greater risk of developing dependencies, experiencing health difficulties or becoming economically inactive, all of which will have a detrimental effect on the economy. To address the problem of underage drinking initiatives and proposals are ongoing. In 2008, certain councils piloted local bans on under-21s using off-licenses. Results indicated that the level of assaults, vandalism and general complaints about young people fell significantly. These pilots were viewed successfully but critics argue that governments need to focus on wider issues such as poverty in order to change Scotlands attitude to alcohol (The Times, 2008). The regulation of the sale of alcohol has a long history in UK society. Whilst the minimum age of eighteen years old to purchase alcohol has remained the same, the variety of outlets licensed to sell alcohol and the opening times of these has changed dramatically. Tensions exist for government in relation to the deregulation of alcohol along with the wider availability of it and concerns about Scotlands problematic relationship with alcohol. Current government policy appears to be tailored towards the health benefits of reducing alcohol consumption and dependency and addressing the detrimental effects on health services and other related social problems. This appears to be the Governments focus regardless of the opportunity to raise substantial revenue through the taxation of alcohol. Such changes in political attitudes towards alcohol abuse have brought about firmer regulations governing the sale and possession of alcohol, for example, The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 represents th e biggest changes to the Licensing System in Scotland in over thirty years. The Act increases responsibility for those who are involved in the sale of alcohol and places restrictions on drinks promotions, for example, Happy Hours and two-for-one promotions can no longer be used by licensed premises. Recent reforms relate to the Scottish Governments introduction of the Alcohol Bill. This Bill proposes a number of measures to tackle alcohol-related harm including a 40 pence per unit minimum price (Scottish Government, 2009). However critics argue that pricing measures will not tackle the underlying reasons why people drink harmfully. Changes in regulations have came about to address issues such as public disorder and underage drinking as alcohol abuse is significantly linked to these. Law and order and health are just some of many Government departments which are affected by alcohol-related harm. The total cost to UK society is vast. The National Social Marketing Centre in 2007 estimated a cost  £55.1 billion. This estimate was composed of  £21 billion cost to individuals and families/households,  £2.8 billion cost to public health and care services,  £2.1 billion cost to the Criminal Justice System, Education and Social Services,  £7.3 billion cost to employers (includes days lost to affects of alcohol abuse) and  £21.9 billion in human cost (reduced quality of life adjusted years) (House of Commons, 2009). The increasing cost of alcohol abuse and related concerns are therefore key considerations for government. SECTION 3 Need for change? During this time of economic recession, the government is paying significant attention to welfare reform. Government publications such as Raising Expectations and Increasing Support: Reforming Welfare for the Future (2008) detail plans for the future as part of New Labours vision for a personalised welfare state. There appears to be a number of reasons why the government wants to increase employment levels, helping to explain why the governments focus has been on welfare reforms. The rate of worklessness, that is, those detached from the labour market, for example, alcohol-dependent and economically inactive individuals is significant. The Office for National Statistics (2009) reported that the number of working-age people in workless households in April-June 2009 reached 4.8 million. This was a rise of 500,000 from the previous year. The number of workless households with children reached 1.9 million, highlighting a rise of 170,000. The percentage of households in which no adults worked also increased by 1.1 percentage points from the previous year. These s reflect the highest rates since 1999 and the highest year-on-year increase since 1997. Increasing the number of economically active in society is crucial for government as they fund the economically dependent. Worklessness is linked to poor health and poverty and both poverty and worklessness are intergenerational; a working household is not only less likely to be in poverty, but also children living in the household are less likely to be in poverty as adults (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2007). Some argue that benefit payments accompanied with weak or no work expectations trap the very people they are supposed to help. Worklessness and the increasing cost of alcohol abuse are therefore key considerations for current government and help to explain reasons for change. Recognition that the number of people over state pension age has exceeded the number of children has raised government concerns. The dilemma of an ageing population has caused alarm for both public and private sectors, for example, concerns relate to pensions, the size of the workforce and the capacities of the health and social services. Alcock et al (2008) point out: â€Å"For governments, high rates of employment boost tax revenues, reduce spending on social security benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and meet the anticipated costs of an aging population† (Alcock et al., 2008, p.311). The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) points out that the new Employment and Support Allowance focuses on enabling disabled people and individuals with a health condition to engage in appropriate work, if they are able. The government has indicated that over 2.6 million people depend on incapacity benefits in the UK and that nine out of ten new claimants say that they want to return to work. The government cites this as one of the reasons why change has occurred (DWP, 2008). The idea that alcohol dependent service users are required to find suitable work raises questions about the availability, types of jobs and the level of pay required to help families out of poverty. Alcoholism is seen to have both direct and indirect effects on earnings and employment. Productivity and reliability in the labour market can be affected by the physical and mental health problems linked with alcohol dependency. That is, sickness, hangover or late arrivals are work characteristics that lead to reduced reliability and productivity. Indirect effects relate to a possible lack of education if a dependency has prevented an individual from completing or advancing at school. This possible lack of education could lead to lower wages and a limited selection of jobs. Difficulties in maintaining employment may also be experienced by individuals who are alcohol dependent, as reduced reliability leads to job loss and decreased employability. Consequently the lack of work experience ca n lead to lower wages and earnings (MacPherson, 1998). However, having someone in work does not necessarily mean the household will not be poor; thus, debates continue in relation to the role that employment policies play in reducing poverty. The new Employment and Support Allowance places obligations upon disabled people, including alcohol dependent individuals judged to be capable of work. Creating ideas that centre on having norms which is to be in full time paid work is perhaps stigmatising and disadvantaging to those people whose capabilities mean they have to work less or at a slower rate. Critics would argue that the new system will make it difficult for individuals to refuse a job if they consider it beneath their dignity, thus raising questions about the value of autonomy in our society. Increasing the degree of conditionality in the benefit system could perhaps add strength to the argument that too often ‘poor people can be treated as though they have no right to pursue a career of their choice, how to allocate time between family responsibilities or work outside their home or how to meet their family responsibilities. Some would argue that ‘poor people do not receive the same minimum respect as other citizens (Young, 2002). SECTION 4 Practice issues, challenges and dilemmas Some people with disabilities need extra resources, equipment or personal care to function independently and/or benefit from welfare-to-work government policies. In relation to people who misuse alcohol and claim Employment and Support Allowance on the grounds of incapacity, this section will examine some of the current practice issues and the main challenges and dilemmas that can arise. Many people with substance misuse issues appear to lack serious motivation to change behaviour that could be described as self-destructive. In relation to what works to motivate people to change, research has shown that scare tactics and confronting individuals are likely to lead to a defensive reaction, whilst labeling an individual as an ‘alcoholic or ‘addict is unhelpful and does not support the person to change (Goodman, 2007). Setting goals is important, but for any assistance to be successful, such goals must be a shared aspiration between the individual and worker. How successful the new system will be in helping people who misuse alcohol return to work will perhaps be more related to how well it works with individuals in assessing what they are capable of and how effective it is in assessing what help and support service users need to manage their condition, rather than the increasing conditionality and penalties. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) gives Job Centre advisers the power to assess individuals for alcohol problems and to force those with a dependency to undergo treatment. Individuals who refuse will lose benefits. Critics argue that job Centre advisers do not have the training for this role, and that specialised drug and alcohol professionals would need to carry out such assessments. There is also concern whether drug and alcohol services have the resources to deal with the increased number of perhaps, involuntary clients. The charity Alcohol Concern estimates that only one in 18 individuals who have an alcohol dependency can to access treatment (Hunter, 2009). The focus on what works best with alcohol and drug problems is of great importance. Challenges arise from frustrations felt by workers seeing people with alcohol or drug problems repeatedly in and out of the ‘revolving door of services. Attempting to change a long term pattern of drinking is extremely difficult, with research showing that several or more attempts can be required. Petersen and McBride (2002) highlighted that: â€Å"The inability to stop using drugs and especially the inability to avoid returning to use are at the heart of what we mean by addiction. In this respect, the problem of relapse is one of the defining features of the addictive disorders† (Petersen and McBride, 2002, p189) If relapse is a defining feature of the addictive disorder, how do welfare changes which make more condition and create more complex systems incorporate this known feature of the addiction cycle? Dilemmas arise in relation to the new system and the lack of sensitivity to the particular conditions such as alcohol abuse with its relapse and periodic ‘down periods. Critics point out that an individuals alcohol dependency might be an indication that he or she is struggling to cope and that removing benefits could have detrimental effects. Removing or reducing alcohol dependent service users benefits could create more strain in their lives and make their alcohol issues worse. This, in turn, would be less likely to help individuals in getting back to work, and therefore the new system would have achieved the opposite of its intended purpose. How individuals would Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Introduction Government policies and assistance for people who misuse alcohol raise controversial issues for legislators, policymakers and practitioners alike. Goodman (2007) highlights that government policy adopts both a ‘carrot and ‘stick approach. While individuals who misuse substances are encouraged to seek treatment, there is also the threat that for those who choose not to engage in programmes, they run the risk of being targeted if they continue in their addiction. Thus those whose alcohol addiction has caused them to become involved in criminal/illegal activities and who refuse to engage with alcohol interventions face agencies using enforcement and prosecution if they continue with their behaviours. Harm caused by alcohol is Scotlands biggest health challenge. Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action was published to address Scotlands  £2.25 billion alcohol misuse problem. The governments focus is on reducing costs, recovery and making sure that people who need help are identified sooner and directed towards the right services (Scottish Government, 2009). In line with this, there have been significant changes in welfare policies for people who misuse alcohol. There is no clear of the number of people with drug and alcohol problems receiving social work interventions. Research is usually based on specialised practice teams, for example, teams working with children and families. Research suggests that approximately 25 per cent of children on child protection registers involve parental alcohol and or drug use. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of drugs (ACMD) 2003) while Hayden (2004) points out that higher estimates have been found among children and families services more broadly. Further research highlights that drug and alcohol misuse is prevalent with the many groups of people social workers often work with, for example, 44 per cent of people with mental ill health use substances in harmful or hazardous ways (Weaver et al, 2003) and among young people aged 14-15, research has shown that drinking alcohol is a regular occurrence (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). Gender is also an important area in the field of substance misuse with rese arch showing that it is often thought for it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man (Sandmaier, 1992). It would appear that the experience of alcohol abuse may be different for a man and a woman. My interest in addictions developed whilst on placement with a voluntary organisation working with young people involved with offending and/or anti social behaviour. The placement demonstrated the increase in the extent to which drug and alcohol use influences the involvement of young people in offending (Rutter et al, 1998). An opportunity whilst on a mental health placement to work with a woman experiencing severe emotional, behavioural and financial difficulties who was alcohol dependent alerted me to the profound effects of addiction, the effect of proposed policy changes and to some of the difficulties experienced whilst working with this client group. By 2009, the harm caused by alcohol and the cost to UK society had become a topical debate. Current downturns in the UK economic climate coupled with large number of economically inactive individuals and an increase in worklessness created much cause for concern. It was decided to focus this study on alcohol dependent service users in light of the new legislation in the UK which aimed to support individuals with health difficulties in getting back to work. Aims of the Research This research aim is to explore the experiences and perceptions of front line workers regarding the implication of the new Employment and Support Allowance for people who misuse alcohol and the implications this has for social work practice and will broadly cover issues such as: What difference, if any, has the introduction of the new Employment and Support Allowance made to work carried out with alcohol dependent service users? Should the implementation of this Allowance be subject to specific conditions? What is the experiences of working with alcohol dependent service users? Outline of the dissertation A review of the relevant literature is presented in chapter two in order to set the study in its legal, political and practice context. The approach and methods used to collect the data will be explored in chapter three. Chapter four presents and discusses the findings and chapter five presents the final analysis, draws some conclusions and makes some suggestions for future practice and research. All names including the name of the organisation in which the research is based have been changed in accordance with confidentiality agreements. Chapter 1 Literature Review INTRODUCTION This literature review is divided into four sections. Section one addresses, understandings of alcohol abuse. Political responses to alcohol abuse is the focus of section two. Section three explores the reasons for change and section four discusses practice issues, challenges and dilemmas. The terms alcohol addiction, alcoholism, and alcohol dependence have the same meaning. No one term is more serious than the other. Different terms have evolved over the years to overcome the negative stigma of addiction. Some people are not addicted to drugs or alcohol, but abuse them. The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) uses specific criteria over a 12 month period to differentiate between dependence and abuse. If an individual fulfils the criteria for substance dependency then a diagnosis of substance abuse does not apply (Petersen McBride, 2002). For the purpose of this research, the term alcohol abuse will be used to describe individuals who abuse alcohol as well as those who are categorised as alcohol dependent. SECTION 1 Understandings of alcohol abuse The use of alcohol is long standing within Western culture. As the research has a focus on alcohol abuse, consideration must be given to the reasons why such a growth in excessive drinking emerged. The social changes stemming from the industrial revolution are therefore significant. Previous to these, ideas centred on the view that human beings were thought to be rational and exercised free will in relation to self enjoyment. Individuals were seen to exercise choice; â€Å"Drunkenness was a choice, albeit a sinful one, which some individuals made.† (Levine, 1978, p146) The movement of people from rural to urban areas because of the need for organised labour together with the growth in population meant that there were significantly high concentrations of people. Social problems emerged on an exceptional scale with excessive alcohol consumption and related safety at work issues causing great public concern. Problems relating to alcohol abuse thus became more socially significant. Many theories exist in relation to understanding the causes of alcohol abuse. Early explanations to problems with substance misuse focused on moral issues and the idea that alcohol consumption and ungodliness were linked. Individuals who had problems with drink were viewed as being ‘weak willed or ‘sinful with ‘treatment focusing on punishment or religious conversion (Petersen McBride, 2002, p34*). During the nineteenth century, scientific explanations began to emerge in relation to understanding the spread of excessive drinking behaviour in society; this was the first time that the idea of alcoholism as a disease was considered (Collins, 1990). Applying such a medical analysis allowed for a new awareness, understanding and even sympathetic attitude towards alcohol consumption and its related problems. Pressure on the State to ensure that alcoholism was recognised as a disease which required specific medical attention was now evident. Petersen McBride (2002) highlight that substance use is different from dependence or addiction. When a person tries a substance once or for the first few times, it is seen as ‘experimental. Substance misuse can also be ‘recreational meaning a person may misuse a substance, for example, alcohol, occasionally or on a social basis. The individual is seen as ‘dependent if they have developed a dependent pattern on a substance and misuse it continually. Critics argue that the disease approach focuses the attention only on the dependent problem drinker, the drinker who is experiencing severe physical and social consequences. Problems can occur at any of these stages with different interventions available, for example, the ‘disease model supports the argument for total abstinence and is broadly supported by Alcoholics Anonymous. However this model will not work for everyone. Alternatively, models which focus on harm reduction through controlled drinking, for example , the ‘wheel of change model, are also accepted within drug and alcohol services (Goodman, 2007). Difficulties arise when categorising individuals and in relation to the language used; for example what constitutes recreational use? What is the difference between dependence and addiction? The language used within alcohol literature varies greatly. It is possible for someone to be in all three stages at once; for example someone who is dependent on alcohol may recreationally misuse cannabis. There appears to be a move away from socially constructed terms such as addiction, with research highlighting that terms such as ‘addict or ‘alcoholic carry with them a negative connation and are powerful labels. Goodman (2007) points out that it is better to call a person drug dependent, where the dependency is the compulsion to keep taking drugs. There is no one clear definition of alcohol abuse as a disease. Kessel Walton (1989) highlight that ‘alcoholism is a difficult subject to study and alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. Defining what constitutes an ‘alcoholic and what constitutes a ‘non-alcoholic is difficult. Collins (1990) highlights that; â€Å"It is now accepted that problem drinking exists on a continuum, with normal or non-problem drinking at one end and severe dependence at the other† (Collins, 1990, p49*) Developments in research into dependency have led to risk factors such as stress, social environment, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender being identified. For example, studies have shown that children born from alcohol dependent parents who are adopted into families with no dependency issues are at greater risk of becoming alcohol dependent than the rest of the population. This would suggest that there is some genetic predisposition to alcohol dependence. Children born and raised by alcohol dependent parents have an even greater rate of becoming alcohol dependent, although here learnt behaviour may also be a factor (ref). Psychological theories such as Social Learning Theory relate behaviour to processes that take place within the individuals mind rather than the physical structure of the brain. Behaviour is believed to be conditioned by the expectations of the individual in carrying out a particular action, for example, immediate short term effects of alcohol can create feelings of enjoyment or eliminate unpleasant withdrawals. In the long term the advantages of stopping may be less rewarding than the short term gratification of prolonged misuse. Certain studies question the idea of rewarded behaviour and that addiction is a consequence. Chein (1964) found that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users, suggesting that drugs are not inherently rewarding as Social Learning Theory purports. Furthermore, it was found that a percentage of people who developed dependencies became dependent anyway despite having found the initial drug experience unpleasant. Regardless of these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and highlights once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model. Social Learning theory is helpful in explaining the differences in social attitudes to alcohol abuse in women. Sandmaier (1992) surveyed attitudes towards alcohol abuse among four hundred women and men of varying socioeconomic classes, ethnicity and age in the United States and found that the majority thought it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man. Labelling someone as an ‘alcoholic can be stigmatising and affect an individuals self-efficacy and self-esteem (Goodman, 2007). Attitudes towards drinking are not homogeneous, however the stigma attached to female alcohol abuse significantly shapes the experience, rendering it different from the experience of a man. Alcohol abuse for women threatens societys formed image about women being good mothers or good wives. Problem drinking often goes undetected amongst women due to a fear of condemnation by society. Women experiencing alcohol problems can be viewed as ‘repulsive and disgraceful. Such cultural judgments can therefore adversely affect women seeking help (Sandmaier, 1992, p8). Theories of personality are located somewhere between the biological and psychological with suggestions that certain types of people will experience problems with alcohol dependency. The term ‘addictive personality is sometimes used but critics have questioned this, concluding that there is no one type of personality more likely to abuse substances or develop substance dependency (Nathan, 1988). What appears to be more accurate is that specific personality traits have been linked to substance misuse, for example, sensation seeking has been identified as a personality trait that may be common in those who choose to abuse substances (Zuckerman, 1979). Two main schools of thought appear to be evident in relation to understanding alcohol abuse; the biological standpoint and a more psychosocial belief structure. It is important to understand that theories provide useful contributions to understanding substance dependence but that no integrated theory exists. â€Å"As there is no one substance use experience and no one encompassing theory, there can be no one specific response.† (Petersen McBride, 2002, p36) What looks apparent is that society, for many years, has had an ambivalent attitude towards alcohol consumption. Confusion of attitudes inevitably result from shifts among policy makers in line with changes in dominant viewpoints. Predominant medical understandings of alcohol abuse which consider ‘alcoholism as a disease justify state intervention such as help through health care to address the damage caused to the body. Whatever the reasons behind substance abuse and dependency, research has shown there to be a huge cost, both financially and to human life. SECTION 2 Political responses to alcohol abuse In order to explore the States approach to tackling alcohol abuse, ideas around welfare are significant. As a result of the development of ‘alcoholism being recognised as a disease which requires treatment, distinguishable welfare needs have been identified. In reviewing ideas around welfare, the ‘welfare state in the UK differed from previous schemes of poverty relief due to its relatively universal coverage. The Social Insurance and Allied Services Report (1942) (the Beveridge Report) provided the proposals which allowed for the creation of the welfare state. The idea was to provide universal benefits to all and to address issues such as unemployment, poverty and disease. Critics argued that the creation of a ‘welfare state under Beveridges original proposal was excessively expensive, could not be financially maintained after the post war boom period and would create an unwillingness to work. Since 1979, reforms have been evident across all government sectors with more of an emphasis being placed on the responsibility of the individual. The Social Security Act (1986) brought about major structural changes to the social security system. In relation to benefits, means testing and compulsory conditions to specific benefits were established. For example, invalidity benefit for those who were unable to work due to ill health, which included alcohol dependent service users, was changed to incapacity benefit requiring all but the severely disabled, below pension age, to become job seekers. This brought about a new culture towards welfare which the ‘New Labour government elected in the 1997 election were quick to embrace. Alcock et al (2008) highlight that in analysing current political attitudes, an account of social policy now is an account of the shape it has been given by the New Labour Government in power. The Government believes that paid work has many rewards, for example, it increases independence, health and well being. The government wants to provide the opportunity for as many people as possible to access employment and share such rewards. Employment policies occupy a central but controversial place in debates about the future of welfare. Welfare-to work programmes for those who are able to work have been introduced in an attempt to move away from the ‘old passive benefit system (Alcock et al, 2008, p342). Developments have seen groups that had previously not been expected to find paid work, for example, people with disabilities, now being include d in this approach. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) which applies to England, Wales and Scotland sets out the framework necessary for the future abolition of Income Support, and the movement of claimants of that benefit to Jobseekers Allowance with differing degrees of conditionality, or to Employment and Support Allowance. The Act provides for those who have problems with alcohol to be directed to make, and comply with, a rehabilitation plan. Concern about the negative consequences of alcohol abuse has reached a significantly high point on the current political agenda. At a national level the problems associated with alcohol abuse is recognised as a priority by the Government. Local governments have developed their own frameworks for addressing alcohol related harm, for example, ‘Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action (Scottish Government, 2009). The role alcohol plays in the UKs economy can be both positive and negative. There are wide-reaching economic benefits derived from alcohol and alcohol consumption such as the provision of employment and tax revenues. The total value of the UK drinks market exceeds  £30 billion. The justification for alcohol excise duties ensures that the consumer directly contributes to any costs that alcohol consumption imposes on society as alcoholic drink is subject to both excise and VAT. Revenue for the Exchequer is substantial and has been increasing for the last 30 years. The alcoholic drinks industry reports to generate approximately one million jobs across the whole supply chain. The British Beer and Pub Association reports that there are over one million people employed in hotels, restaurants, pubs and clubs (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2008). It is evident that alcohol plays an important role in the success of certain parts of industry in UK society. In relation to the harm caused by alcohol in Scotland, there were over 40,000 hospital admissions in 2007-8 due to alcohol related illness and injury and deaths related to alcohol have more than doubled in the last 15 years. Rates of liver cirrhosis in Scotland are growing faster than anywhere else in the world and life expectancy in some parts of Scotland has fallen significantly short of life expectancy elsewhere. Research suggests that alcohol plays a significant part in these inequalities (Scottish Government, 2009). Research has shown that drinking alcohol in Scotland is a common occurrence for the majority of young people between the ages of 12 and 15 and that the problem with underage drinking is rising (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). If people are drinking at a younger age they are at greater risk of developing dependencies, experiencing health difficulties or becoming economically inactive, all of which will have a detrimental effect on the economy. To address the problem of underage drinking initiatives and proposals are ongoing. In 2008, certain councils piloted local bans on under-21s using off-licenses. Results indicated that the level of assaults, vandalism and general complaints about young people fell significantly. These pilots were viewed successfully but critics argue that governments need to focus on wider issues such as poverty in order to change Scotlands attitude to alcohol (The Times, 2008). The regulation of the sale of alcohol has a long history in UK society. Whilst the minimum age of eighteen years old to purchase alcohol has remained the same, the variety of outlets licensed to sell alcohol and the opening times of these has changed dramatically. Tensions exist for government in relation to the deregulation of alcohol along with the wider availability of it and concerns about Scotlands problematic relationship with alcohol. Current government policy appears to be tailored towards the health benefits of reducing alcohol consumption and dependency and addressing the detrimental effects on health services and other related social problems. This appears to be the Governments focus regardless of the opportunity to raise substantial revenue through the taxation of alcohol. Such changes in political attitudes towards alcohol abuse have brought about firmer regulations governing the sale and possession of alcohol, for example, The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 represents th e biggest changes to the Licensing System in Scotland in over thirty years. The Act increases responsibility for those who are involved in the sale of alcohol and places restrictions on drinks promotions, for example, Happy Hours and two-for-one promotions can no longer be used by licensed premises. Recent reforms relate to the Scottish Governments introduction of the Alcohol Bill. This Bill proposes a number of measures to tackle alcohol-related harm including a 40 pence per unit minimum price (Scottish Government, 2009). However critics argue that pricing measures will not tackle the underlying reasons why people drink harmfully. Changes in regulations have came about to address issues such as public disorder and underage drinking as alcohol abuse is significantly linked to these. Law and order and health are just some of many Government departments which are affected by alcohol-related harm. The total cost to UK society is vast. The National Social Marketing Centre in 2007 estimated a cost  £55.1 billion. This estimate was composed of  £21 billion cost to individuals and families/households,  £2.8 billion cost to public health and care services,  £2.1 billion cost to the Criminal Justice System, Education and Social Services,  £7.3 billion cost to employers (includes days lost to affects of alcohol abuse) and  £21.9 billion in human cost (reduced quality of life adjusted years) (House of Commons, 2009). The increasing cost of alcohol abuse and related concerns are therefore key considerations for government. SECTION 3 Need for change? During this time of economic recession, the government is paying significant attention to welfare reform. Government publications such as Raising Expectations and Increasing Support: Reforming Welfare for the Future (2008) detail plans for the future as part of New Labours vision for a personalised welfare state. There appears to be a number of reasons why the government wants to increase employment levels, helping to explain why the governments focus has been on welfare reforms. The rate of worklessness, that is, those detached from the labour market, for example, alcohol-dependent and economically inactive individuals is significant. The Office for National Statistics (2009) reported that the number of working-age people in workless households in April-June 2009 reached 4.8 million. This was a rise of 500,000 from the previous year. The number of workless households with children reached 1.9 million, highlighting a rise of 170,000. The percentage of households in which no adults worked also increased by 1.1 percentage points from the previous year. These s reflect the highest rates since 1999 and the highest year-on-year increase since 1997. Increasing the number of economically active in society is crucial for government as they fund the economically dependent. Worklessness is linked to poor health and poverty and both poverty and worklessness are intergenerational; a working household is not only less likely to be in poverty, but also children living in the household are less likely to be in poverty as adults (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2007). Some argue that benefit payments accompanied with weak or no work expectations trap the very people they are supposed to help. Worklessness and the increasing cost of alcohol abuse are therefore key considerations for current government and help to explain reasons for change. Recognition that the number of people over state pension age has exceeded the number of children has raised government concerns. The dilemma of an ageing population has caused alarm for both public and private sectors, for example, concerns relate to pensions, the size of the workforce and the capacities of the health and social services. Alcock et al (2008) point out: â€Å"For governments, high rates of employment boost tax revenues, reduce spending on social security benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and meet the anticipated costs of an aging population† (Alcock et al., 2008, p.311). The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) points out that the new Employment and Support Allowance focuses on enabling disabled people and individuals with a health condition to engage in appropriate work, if they are able. The government has indicated that over 2.6 million people depend on incapacity benefits in the UK and that nine out of ten new claimants say that they want to return to work. The government cites this as one of the reasons why change has occurred (DWP, 2008). The idea that alcohol dependent service users are required to find suitable work raises questions about the availability, types of jobs and the level of pay required to help families out of poverty. Alcoholism is seen to have both direct and indirect effects on earnings and employment. Productivity and reliability in the labour market can be affected by the physical and mental health problems linked with alcohol dependency. That is, sickness, hangover or late arrivals are work characteristics that lead to reduced reliability and productivity. Indirect effects relate to a possible lack of education if a dependency has prevented an individual from completing or advancing at school. This possible lack of education could lead to lower wages and a limited selection of jobs. Difficulties in maintaining employment may also be experienced by individuals who are alcohol dependent, as reduced reliability leads to job loss and decreased employability. Consequently the lack of work experience ca n lead to lower wages and earnings (MacPherson, 1998). However, having someone in work does not necessarily mean the household will not be poor; thus, debates continue in relation to the role that employment policies play in reducing poverty. The new Employment and Support Allowance places obligations upon disabled people, including alcohol dependent individuals judged to be capable of work. Creating ideas that centre on having norms which is to be in full time paid work is perhaps stigmatising and disadvantaging to those people whose capabilities mean they have to work less or at a slower rate. Critics would argue that the new system will make it difficult for individuals to refuse a job if they consider it beneath their dignity, thus raising questions about the value of autonomy in our society. Increasing the degree of conditionality in the benefit system could perhaps add strength to the argument that too often ‘poor people can be treated as though they have no right to pursue a career of their choice, how to allocate time between family responsibilities or work outside their home or how to meet their family responsibilities. Some would argue that ‘poor people do not receive the same minimum respect as other citizens (Young, 2002). SECTION 4 Practice issues, challenges and dilemmas Some people with disabilities need extra resources, equipment or personal care to function independently and/or benefit from welfare-to-work government policies. In relation to people who misuse alcohol and claim Employment and Support Allowance on the grounds of incapacity, this section will examine some of the current practice issues and the main challenges and dilemmas that can arise. Many people with substance misuse issues appear to lack serious motivation to change behaviour that could be described as self-destructive. In relation to what works to motivate people to change, research has shown that scare tactics and confronting individuals are likely to lead to a defensive reaction, whilst labeling an individual as an ‘alcoholic or ‘addict is unhelpful and does not support the person to change (Goodman, 2007). Setting goals is important, but for any assistance to be successful, such goals must be a shared aspiration between the individual and worker. How successful the new system will be in helping people who misuse alcohol return to work will perhaps be more related to how well it works with individuals in assessing what they are capable of and how effective it is in assessing what help and support service users need to manage their condition, rather than the increasing conditionality and penalties. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) gives Job Centre advisers the power to assess individuals for alcohol problems and to force those with a dependency to undergo treatment. Individuals who refuse will lose benefits. Critics argue that job Centre advisers do not have the training for this role, and that specialised drug and alcohol professionals would need to carry out such assessments. There is also concern whether drug and alcohol services have the resources to deal with the increased number of perhaps, involuntary clients. The charity Alcohol Concern estimates that only one in 18 individuals who have an alcohol dependency can to access treatment (Hunter, 2009). The focus on what works best with alcohol and drug problems is of great importance. Challenges arise from frustrations felt by workers seeing people with alcohol or drug problems repeatedly in and out of the ‘revolving door of services. Attempting to change a long term pattern of drinking is extremely difficult, with research showing that several or more attempts can be required. Petersen and McBride (2002) highlighted that: â€Å"The inability to stop using drugs and especially the inability to avoid returning to use are at the heart of what we mean by addiction. In this respect, the problem of relapse is one of the defining features of the addictive disorders† (Petersen and McBride, 2002, p189) If relapse is a defining feature of the addictive disorder, how do welfare changes which make more condition and create more complex systems incorporate this known feature of the addiction cycle? Dilemmas arise in relation to the new system and the lack of sensitivity to the particular conditions such as alcohol abuse with its relapse and periodic ‘down periods. Critics point out that an individuals alcohol dependency might be an indication that he or she is struggling to cope and that removing benefits could have detrimental effects. Removing or reducing alcohol dependent service users benefits could create more strain in their lives and make their alcohol issues worse. This, in turn, would be less likely to help individuals in getting back to work, and therefore the new system would have achieved the opposite of its intended purpose. How individuals would